Categories of languages that support OOP:
1. OOP support is added to an existing language
12.2 Object-Oriented ProgrammingC++ (also supports procedural and data-oriented programming)
Ada 95 (also supports procedural and data-oriented programming)
CLOS (also supports functional programming)
Scheme (also supports functional programming)
2. Support OOP, but have the same appearance and use the basic structure of earlier imperative languagesEiffel (not based directly on any previous language)3. Pure OOP languages
Java (based on C++)Smalltalk
Paradigm Evolution
1. Procedural - 1950s-1970s (procedural abstraction)Origins of Inheritance
2. Data-Oriented - early 1980s (data abstraction)
3. OOP - late 1980s (Inheritance and dynamic binding)
Observations of the mid-late 1980s :OOP Definitions:Productivity increases can come from reuseInheritance solves both--reuse ADTs after minor changes and define classes in a hierarchy
Unfortunately,ADTs are difficult to reuse--never quite right
All ADTs are independent and at the same level
ADTs are called classesThere are two kinds of variables in a class:Class instances are called objects
A class that inherits is a derived class or a subclass
The class from which another class inherits is a parent class or superclass
Subprograms that define operations on objects are called methods
The entire collection of methods of an object is called its message protocol or message interface
Messages have two parts--a method name and the destination object
In the simplest case, a class inherits all of the entities of its parent
Inheritance can be complicated by access controls to encapsulated entities
A class can hide entities from its subclassesBesides inheriting methods as is, a class can modify an inherited method
A class can hide entities from its clients
A class can also hide entities for its clients while allowing its subclasses to see themThe new one overrides the inherited one
The method in the parent is overriden
1. Class variables - one/classThere are two kinds of methods in a class:
2. Instance variables - one/object
1. Class methods – accept messages to the
2. Instance methods – accept messages to objects
Single vs. Multiple Inheritance
One disadvantage of inheritance for reuse:
Creates interdependencies among classes that complicate maintenancePolymorphism in OOPLs
A polymorphic variable can be defined in a class that is able to reference (or point to) objects of the class and objects of any of its descendantsDesign Issues for OOPLsWhen a class hierarchy includes classes that override methods and such methods are called
through a polymorphic variable, the binding to the correct method MUST be dynamicThis polymorphism simplifies the addition of new methods
A virtual method is one that does not include a definition (it only defines a protocol)
A virtual class is one that includes at least one virtual method
A virtual class cannot be instantiated
a. Everything is an object
Advantage - elegance and
purity
Disadvantage - slow operations
on simple objects (e.g., float)
b. Add objects to a complete typing system
Advantage - fast operations
on simple objects
Disadvantage - results
in a confusing type system (two kinds of entities)
c. Include an imperative-style typing system for
primitives but make
everything else objects
Advantage - fast operations
on simple objects and a relatively small typing system
Disadvantage - still
some confusion because of the two type systems
2. Are Subclasses Subtypes?
- Does an is-a relationship hold between a parent
class object and an object of the subclass?
3. Implementation and Interface Inheritance
- If only the interface of the parent class is visible
to the subclass, it is interface inheritance
Disadvantage - can result in inefficiencies
- If both the interface and the implementation of the parent
class is visible to the subclass, it is implementation inheritance
Disadvantage - changes to the parent class require recompilation
of subclasses, and sometimes even modification of subclasses
4. Type Checking and Polymorphism
- Polymorphism may require dynamic type
checking of parameters and the return value
- Dynamic type checking is costly
and delays
error detection
- If overriding methods are restricted to having the
same parameter types and return type,
the
checking can be static
5. Single and Multiple Inheritance
- Disadvantages of multiple inheritance:
- Language and implementation complexity
(in
part due to name collisions)
- Potential inefficiency - dynamic binding
costs
more with multiple inheritance
(but not much)
- Advantage:
- Sometimes it is extremely convenient
and
valuable
6. Allocation and Deallocation of Objects
- From where are objects allocated?
- If they all live in the heap, references
to them
are uniform
- Simplifies assignment -
dereferencing can be
implicit
- Is deallocation explicit or implicit?
7. Dynamic and Static Binding
- Should ALL binding of messages to methods be
dynamic?
- If none are, you lose the advantages
of
dynamic binding
- If all are, it is inefficient
12.4 Overview of Smalltalk
- Smalltalk is a pure OOP language
- Everything is an object
- All computation is through objects sending
messages to objects
- It adopts none of the appearance of imperative
languages
- The Smalltalk Environment
- The first complete GUI system
- A complete system for software development
- All of the system source code is available to
the user, who can modify it if he/she
wants
12.5 Introduction to Smalltalk
- Expressions
- Four kinds:
1. Literals (numbers, strings, and keywords)
2. Variable names (all variables are
references)
3. Message expressions (see below)
4. Block expressions (see below)
- Message expressions
- Two parts: the receiver object and the message
itself
- The message part specifies the method and
possibly some parameters
- Replies to messages are objects
- Messages can be of three forms:
1. Unary (no parameters)
e.g., myAngle sin
(sends a message to the sin method
of the
myAngle object)
2. Binary (one parameter, an object)
e.g., 12 + 17
(sends the message “+ 17”
to the object 12;
the object parameter
is “17” and the method
is “+”)
3. Keyword (use keywords to organize the
parameters)
e.g., myArray at: 1
put: 5
(sends the objects
“1” and “5” to the at:put:
method of the
object myArray)
- Multiple messages to the same object can be
strung together, separated by semicolons
- Methods
- General form:
message_pattern [| temps |] statements
- A message pattern is like the formal parameters
of a subprogram
- For a unary message, it is just the
name
- For others, it lists keywords and
formal names
- temps are just names--Smalltalk is typeless!
- Assignments
- Simplest Form:
name1 <- name2
- It is simply a pointer assignment
- RHS can be a message expression
e.g., index <- index + 1
- Blocks
- A sequence of statements, separated by periods,
delimited by brackets
e.g.,
[index <- index + 1. sum <- sum + index]
- Blocks (continued)
- A block specifies something, but doesn’t do it
- To request the execution of a block, send it the
unary message, value
e.g., […] value
- If a block is assigned to a variable, it is evaluated
by sending value to that variable
e.g.,
addIndex <- [sum <- sum +
index]
…
addIndex value
- Blocks can have parameters, as in
[:x :y | statements]
- If a block contains a relational expression, it
returns a Boolean object, true or false
- Iteration
- The objects true and false have methods for
building control constructs
- The method WhileTrue: from Block is used for
pretest logical loops. It is defined for all
blocks
that return Boolean objects.
- Iteration (continued)
e.g.,
[count <= 20]
whileTrue [sum <- sum + count.
count <- count + 1]
- timesRepeat: is defined for integers and can be
used to build counting loops
e.g.,
xCube <- 1.
3 timesRepeat: [xCube <- xCube * x]
- Selection
- The Boolean objects have the method
ifTrue:ifFalse: , which can be used to build
selection
e.g.,
total = 0
ifTrue: […]
ifFalse: […]
12.6 Smalltalk Example Programs
- See Book, pp. 480-485
12.7 Large-Scale Features of Smalltalk
- Type Checking and Polymorphism
- All bindings of messages to methods is dynamic
- The process is to search the object
to which
the message is sent
for the method; if not
found, search the
superclass, etc.
- Because all variables are typeless, methods are
all polymorphic
- Inheritance
- All subclasses are subtypes (nothing can be
hidden)
- All inheritance is implementation inheritance
- No multiple inheritance
- Methods can be redefined, but the two are not
related
12.9 Support for OOP in C++
- General Characteristics:
- Mixed typing system
- Constructors and destructors
- Elaborate access controls to class entities
- Inheritance
- A class need not be the subclass of any class
- Access controls for members are
1. Private (visible only in the class
and friends)
(disallows
subclasses from being subtypes)
2. Public (visible in subclasses and
clients)
3. Protected (visible in the class and
in
subclasses,
but not clients)
- In addition, the subclassing
process can be
declared with
access controls (private or
public), which
define potential changes in
access by subclasses
a. Private derivation
- inherited public and
protected members are private in the
subclasses
b. Public derivation public and protected
members are also public and protected in
subclasses
Example (book, p. 490)
class base_class {
private:
int a;
float x;
protected:
int b;
float y;
public:
int c;
float z;
};
class subclass_1 : public base_class { … };
// - In this one, b and y are protected and
// c and z are public
class subclass_2 : private base_class { … };
// - In this one, b, y, c, and z are private,
// and no derived class has access to any
// member of base_class
- Reexportation
A member that is not accessible in a subclass
(because of private derivation) can be declared
to be visible there using the scope resolution
operator (::)
e.g.,
class subclass_3 : private base_class {
base_class :: c;
…
}
- One motivation for using private derivation:
- A class provides members that must be visible,
so they are defined to be public
members;
a derived class adds some new
members, but
does not want its clients to see
the members
of the parent class, even though
they had to be
public in the parent class definition
- Multiple inheritance is supported
- If there are two inherited members
with the
same name, they can
both be reference
using the scope resolution
operator
- Dynamic Binding
- A method can be defined to be virtual, which
means that they can be called through
polymorphic variables and dynamically
bound
to messages
- A pure virtual function has no definition at all
- A class that has at least one pure virtual
function is an abstract
class
- Evaluation
- C++ provides extensive access control (unlike
Smalltalk)
- C++ provides multiple inheritance
- In C++, the programmer must decide at design
time which methods will be statically
bound
and which must be dynamically bound
- Static binding is faster!
- Smalltalk type checking is dynamic (flexible,
but somewhat unsafe)
- Because of interpretation and dynamic binding,
Smalltalk is ~10 times slower
than C++
12.10 Support for OOP in Java
- Because of its close relationship to C++, we focus
on the differences from that language
- General Characteristics
- All data are objects except the primitive types
- All primitive types have wrapper classes that
store one data value
- All objects are heap-dynamic, are referenced
through reference variables, and most
are
allocated with new
- Inheritance
- Single inheritance only, but there is an abstract
class category that provides some of the
benefits of multiple inheritance (interface)
- An interface can include only method
declarations and named constants
e.g.,
public class Clock
extends Applet
implements Runnable
- Methods can be final (cannot be overriden)
- Dynamic Binding
- In Java, all messages are dynamically bound to
methods, unless the method is final
(means it
cannot be overriden; therefore, dynamic
binding
serves no purpose)
- Encapsulation
- Two constructs, classes and packages
- Packages provide a container for classes that
are related (can be named or unamed)
- Entities defined without a scope (access)
modifier have package scope, which makes
them visible throughout the package
in which
they are defined - they go in the unnamed
package
- Every class in a package is a friend
to the
package scope entities elsewhere
in the
package
- So, package scope is an
alternative to the
friends
of C++
12.11 Support for OOP in Ada 95
- General Characteristics
- OOP was one of the most important extensions
to Ada 83
- Encapsulation container is a package that
defines a tagged type
- A tagged type is one in which every object
includes a tag to indicate during execution
its
type (the tags are internal)
- Tagged types can be either private types or
records
- No constructors or destructors are implicitly
called
- Inheritance
- Subclasses can be derived from tagged types
- New entities in a subclass are added in a record
- Example (of a tagged type)
Package PERSON_PKG is
type PERSON is tagged private;
procedure DISPLAY(P : in out PERSON);
private
type PERSON is tagged
record
NAME : STRING(1..30);
ADDRESS : STRING(1..30);
AGE : INTEGER;
end record;
end PERSON_PKG;
with PERSON_PKG; use PERSON_PKG;
package STUDENT_PKG is
type STUDENT is new PERSON with
record
GRADE_POINT_AVERAGE : FLOAT;
GRADE_LEVEL : INTEGER;
end record;
procedure DISPLAY (ST: in STUDENT);
end STUDENT_PKG;
- DISPLAY is being overriden from PERSON_PKG
- Inheritance (continued)
- All subclasses are subtypes
- Single inheritance only, except through generics
- Dynamic Binding
- Dynamic binding is done using polymorphic
variables called classwide types
e.g., for the tagged type PERSON, the classwide
type is PERSON’class
- Other bindings are static
- Any method may be dynamically bound
12.12 Support for OOP in Eiffel
- General Characteristics
- In the original version, all objects were heap
allocated
- Now, Eiffel has both those objects and “expanded
objects” (stack allocated)
- Variables can be references to
objects or
directly reference
expanded objects
- This provides the efficiency
of direct addressing
for primitives
without requiring two typing
systems
- All objects get three operations, copy, clone,
and equal
- Methods are called routines
- Instance variables are called attributes
- The routines and attributes of a class are
together called its features
- Object creation is done with an operator (!!)
- Constructors are defined in a creation clause,
and are explicitly called in the statement
in
which an object is created
- Inheritance
- The parent of a class is specified with the
inherit clause
- Access control
- feature clauses specify access control to
the
entities defined in them
- Without a modifier, the
entities in a feature
clause
are visible to both subclasses and
clients
- With the name of the class
as a modifier,
entities
are hidden from clients but are
visible
to subclasses
- With the none modifier,
entities are hidden
from both
clients and subclasses
- Inherited features can be hidden from
subclasses with undefine
- Abstract classes can be defined by including the
deferred modifier on the class definition
- Dynamic Binding
- Nearly all message binding is dynamic
- An overriding method must have parameters
that are assignment compatible with
those of
the overriden method
- All overriding features must be defined in a
redefine clause
- Access to overriden features is possible
by
putting their names in a
rename clause
- Evaluation
- Similar to Java in that procedural programming
is not supported and nearly all message
binding is dynamic
- Elegant and clean design of support for OOP
12.13 The Object Model of JavaScript
- General Characteristics of JavaScript
- Has little in common with Java
- Dynamic typing
- No classes or inheritance or polymorphism
- Variables can reference objects or can directly
access primitive values
- JavaScript Objects
- An object has a collection of properties, which
are either data properties or
method properties
- Appear as hashes, both internally and externally
- A list of property/value pairs
- Properties can be added or deleted dynamically
- A bare object can be created with new
and a
call to the constructor
for Object
var my_object = new Object();
- References to properties are with dot notation
12.14 Implementing OO Constructs
- Class instance records (CIRs) store the state of
an object
- If a class has a parent, the subclass instance
variables are added to the parent CIR
- Virtual Method Tables (VMTs) are used for
dynamic binding